28. Cajal, S. (1894b), Les Nouvelles idees sur la structure du systeme nerveux chez l’homme et chez les vertebres (Paris: Reinwald), p. x.
29. Bergson, H. (1911), Matter and Memory (London: Allen and Unwin), pp. 19–20.
30. Keith, A. (1919), The Engines of the Human Body (London: Williams and Norgate), p. 259; Kirkland, K. (2002), Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 45:212–23.
31. Keith (1919), pp. 261–2.
32. Otis (2001), p. 67.
33. Robinson, J. (2001), Mechanisms of Synaptic Transmission: Bridging the Gaps (1890–1990) (Oxford: Oxford University Press), p. 21.
34. Foster, M. and Sherrington, C. (1897), A Text Book of Physiology, part III: The Central Nervous System (London: Macmillan), pp. 928–9.
35. Там же, p. 969.
36. Материалы из: Sherrington (1906), pp. 2, 3, 18.
37. Цитаты приводятся по тому же источнику, pp. 141, 155, 39.
38. Там же, p. 39.
39. Valenstein, E. (2005), The War of the Soups and the Sparks: The Discovery of Neurotransmitters and the Dispute Over How Nerves Communicate (New York: Columbia University Press). См. также Dupont, J.-C. (1999), Histoire de la neurotransmission (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France); Robinson (2001); Marcum, J. (2006), Annals of Science 63:139–56. Я не упомянул о работе двух Уолтеров – Гаскелла и Кэннона – потому что это отвлекло бы внимание от главной идеи.
40. Valenstein (2005), p. 6.
41. Ackerknecht, E. (1974), Medical History 18:1–8.
42. Valenstein (2005), p. 19.
43. Там же, p. 22.
44. Там же, p. 43.
45. Dale, H. (1914), Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 6:147–90.
46. Loewi, O. (1960), Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 4:3–25, p. 17.
47. Valenstein (2005), p. 58.
48. Robinson (2001), pp. 63–7.
49. Valenstein (2005), pp. 59–60.
50. Там же, p. 125; Eccles, J. (1976), Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 30:219–30, p. 221.
51. Eccles (1976), p. 225; Brooks, C. and Eccles, J. (1947), Nature 159:760–64.
52. Brock, L., et al. (1952), Journal of Physiology 117:431–60, pp. 452, 455.
8. Машины. 1900–1930-е годы
1. Riskin (2016), pp. 296–304.
2. См., например: Cohen, J. (1966), Human Robots in Myth and Science (London: Allen & Unwin); Mayor, A. (2018), Gods and Robots: Myths, Machines, and Ancient Dreams of Technology (Princeton: Princeton University Press).
3. Hill, A. (1927), Living Machinery (London: Bell); Herrick, C. (1929), The Thinking Machine (Chicago: University of Chicago Press). К сожалению, Геррик мало что мог сказать о мыслящих машинах.
4. Loeb, J. (1912), The Mechanistic Conception of Life: Biological Essays (Chicago: University of Chicago Press); Watson, J. (1913), Psychological Review 20:158–77.
5. Rignano, E. (1926), Man Not a Machine: A Study of the Finalistic Aspects of Life (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner); Needham, J. (1927), Man a Machine (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner).
6. Meyer, M. (1911), The Fundamental Laws of Human Behaviour (Boston: Badger), p. 39.
7. Russell, S. (1913), Journal of Animal Behavior 3:15–35, p. 17, note 5.
8. Там же, p. 35.
9. Miessner, B. (1916), Radiodynamics: The Wireless Control of Torpedoes and Other Mechanisms (New York: Van Nostrand), p. 195.
10. Loeb, J. (1918), Forced Movements, Tropisms and Animal Conduct (London: Lippincott), pp. 68–9.
11. Miessner (1916), p. 199; Cordeschi, R. (2002), The Discovery of the Artificial: Behavior, Mind and Machines Before and Beyond Cybernetics (London: Kluwer).
12. Uexkull, J. von (1926), Theoretical Biology (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner).
13. Magnus, R. (1930), Lane Lectures on Experimental Pharmacology and Medicine (Stanford: Stanford University Press), p. 333.
14. Uexkull (1926), p. 273.
15. Lotka, A. (1925), Elements of Physical Biology (Baltimore: Williams &Wilkins), p. 342.
16. Hull, C. and Baernstein, H. (1929), Science 70:14–15; Baernstein, H. and Hull, C. (1931), Journal of General Psychology 5:99–106; Krueger, R. and Hull, C. (1931), Journal of General Psychology 5:262–9.
17. Krueger and Hull (1931), p. 267.
18. Baernstein and Hull (1931), p. 99.
19. Ross, T. (1933), Scientific American 148:206–8.
20. Ross, T. (1935), Psychological Review 42:387–93, p. 387.
21. Ross, T. (1938), Psychological Review 45:185–9, p. 138.
22. Time, 16 September 1935.
23. Bernstein, J. (1868), Pfluger, Archiv fur Physiologie 1:173–207; Seyfarth, E.-A. (2006), Biological Cybernetics 94:2–8.
24. Bernstein, J. (1902), Pfluger, Archiv fur Physiologie 92:521–62.
25. McComas, A. (2011), Galvani’s Spark: The Story of the Nerve Impulse (Oxford: Oxford University Press); Campenot, R. (2016), Animal Electricity: How We Learned That the Body and Brain are Electric Machines (London: Harvard University Press).
26. Gotch, F. and Burch, G. (1899), Journal of Physiology 24:410–26.
27. Gotch, F. (1902), Journal of Physiology 28:395–416, p. 414.
28. Frank, R. (1994), Osiris 9:208–35.
29. https://tinyurl.com/Adrian-Nobel.
30. Hodgkin, A. (1979), Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 25:1–73; Frank (1994); Garson, J. (2015), Science in Context 28:31–52.
31. Adrian, E. (1914), Journal of Physiology 47:460–74.
32. McComas (2011), pp. 73–4.
33. Forbes, A. and Thacher C. (1920), American Journal of Physiology 52:409–71, p. 468. Daly in the UK and Hober in Germany had similar ideas – Adrian, E. (1928), The Basis of Sensation (London: Christophers), p. 42.
34. Frank (1994), p. 218.
35. Hodgkin (1979), p. 25.
36. Там же, p. 21.
37. Adrian, E. (1926a), Journal of Physiology 61:49–72; Adrian, E. (1926b), Journal of Physiology 62:33–51; Adrian, E. and Zotterman, Y. (1926a), Journal of Physiology 61:151–71; Adrian, E. and Zotterman, Y. (1926b), Journal of Physiology 61:465–83.
38. Frank (1994), p. 209.
39. Adrian, E. and Matthews, B. (1934), Brain 57:355–85, p. 355.
40. Там же, p. 384. We still do not fully understand the origin of EEG – Cohen, M. (2017), Trends in Neurosciences 40:208–18.
41. Эта и следующая цитата из: Adrian (1928), pp. 6, 118–19, 120, 112.
42. Adrian, E. (1932), The Mechanism of Nervous Action: Electrical Studies of the Neurone (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press), p. 12.
43. Thomson, S. and Smith, H. (1853), A Dictionary of Domestic Medicine and Household Surgery (Philadelphia: Lippincott, Grambo), p. 291.
44. Adrian (1928), pp. 91, 100, 98.
45. Garson (2015), p. 46.
9. Контроль. 1930–1950-е годы
1. Smalheiser, N. (2000), Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 43:217–26, pp. 217–18.
2. Easterling, K. (2001), Cabinet 5, https://tinyurl.com/Easterling-Pitts; Gefter, A. (2015), Nautilus 21, https://tinyurl.com/Gefter-Pitts.
3. Chen, Z. (1999), in R. Wilson and F. Keil (eds.), MIT Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press), pp. 650–52, p. 650.
4. В конце концов Рашевский вывел из себя и руководство Чикагского университета, и своих главных спонсоров Фонд Рокфеллера. Дик Левонтин, декан, который закрыл группу, вспоминал: Рашевский и его школа не приняли во внимание убежденность биологов в том, что реальные организмы – это сложные системы, реальное поведение которых теряется в идеализациях. Работа школы считалась не имеющей отношения к биологии и была фактически прекращена в конце 1960-х годов, не оставив никаких осязаемых следов. Lewontin, R.(2003), New York Review of Books, 1 May.
5. Этой главе мы обязаны трудам Тары Абрахам и Маргарет Боден. Abraham, T. (2002), Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 38:3–25; Abraham, T. (2004), Journal of the History of Biology 37:333–85; Abraham, T. (2016), Rebel Genius: Warren S. McCulloch’s Transdisciplinary Life in Science (London: MIT Press); Boden (2006).
6. Rashevsky, N. (1936), Psychometrika 1:1–26, p. 1.
7. Kubie, L. (1930), Brain 53:166–77.
8. Pitts, W. (1942a), Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics 4:121–9; Pitts, W. (1942b). Bulletin for Mathematical Biophysics 4:169–75.
9. Обе даты приводит Абрахам (2002), которая мудро не пытается выбирать между ними.
10. Abraham (2016); Magnus (1930).
11. Lettvin, J., et al. (1959), Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 47:1940–51, p. 1950. Eric Kandel described his work on Aplysia as a validation of Kant – Kandel, E. (2006), In Search of Memory: The Emergence of a New Science of Mind (New York: Norton), p. 202.
12. Hull, C. (1937), Psychological Review 44:1–32.
13. Arbib (2000), p. 199; Heims, S. (1991), Constructing a Social Science for Postwar America: The Cybernetics Group, 1946–1953 (London: MIT Press), p. 38.
14. Heims (1991), pp. 40–41; Conway, F. and Siegelman, J. (2005), Dark Hero of the Information Age: In Search of Norbert Wiener the Father of Cybernetics (New York: Basic).
15. McCulloch, W. and Pitts, W. (1943), Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics 5:115–33.
16. Arbib (2000), p. 207; Kay, L. (2001), Science in Context 14:591–614, p. 592.
17. McCulloch, W. (1965), Embodiments of Mind (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press).
18. Там же, p. 9.
19. Arbib (2000), p. 199.
20. Цитаты из работ: McCulloch and Pitts (1943), pp. 122, 123, 120.