21. Masani, P. (1990), Norbert Wiener 1894–1964 (Basel: Birkhauser Verlag); Kay (2001); Abraham (2004); Piccinini, G. (2004), Synthese 141:175–215; Koch, C. (1999), Biophysics of Computation: Information Processing in Single Neurons (New York: Oxford University Press); недавний пример элемента И, воплощенного в одной клетке: Dobosiewicz, M., et al. (2019), eLife 8:e50566.
22. Heims, S. (1980), John von Neumann & Norbert Weiner: From Mathematics to the Technologies of Life and Death (London: MIT Press), pp. 192–9.
23. Цитаты из: von Neumann, J. (1993), IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 15:27–43, pp. 33, 37, 38.
24. Conway and Siegelman (2005).
25. Abraham (2016), p. 89.
26. Rosenblueth, A., et al. (1943), Philosophy of Science 10:18–24, p. 20.
27. Craik, K. (1943), The Nature of Explanation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), p. 52; Zangwill, O. (1980), British Journal of Psychology 71:1–16.
28. Craik (1943), p. 53.
29. Там же, p. 61.
30. Collins, A. (2012), Interdisciplinary Science Reviews 37:254–68.
31. Craik (1943), p. 115.
32. Adrian, E. (1947), The Physical Background of Perception (Oxford: Clarendon Press), pp. 93–4.
33. Turing, A. (1937), Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society 42:230–65.
34. McCulloch and Pitts (1943), p. 129.
35. Von Neumann, J. (1951), in L. Jeffress (ed.), Cerebral Mechanisms in Behavior: The Hixon Symposium (London: Hafner), pp. 1–41, p. 32.
36. Soni, J. and Goodman, R. (2017), A Mind at Play: How Claude Shannon Invented the Information Age (London: Simon and Schuster), p. 107.
37. Hodges, A. (2012), Alan Turing: The Enigma (London: Vintage), p. 251.
38. Heims (1991), p. 20.
39. Masani (1990), pp. 243–5.
40. Организованный Фондом Хиксона, он часто называется Конференцией Хиксона или собраниеv Хиксона.
41. Цитаты из работы: von Neumann (1951), pp. 10, 20, 24, 34.
42. Цитаты из работы: McCulloch, W. (1951), in L. Jeffress (ed.), Cerebral Mechanisms in Behavior: The Hixon Symposium (New York: Wiley), pp. 45–57, p. 55.
43. Conway and Siegelman (2005), pp. 199, 169.
44. Wiener, N. (1948), Cybernetics: or, Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine (New York: Technology Press), p. 124.
45. Pias, C. (ed.) (2016), Cybernetics: The Macy Conferences 1946–1953 (Zurich: Diaphenes), pp. 171–202.
46. Von Neumann, J. (1958), The Computer and the Brain (New Haven: Yale University Press), p. 82.
47. Olby, R. (1994), The Path to the Double Helix: The Discovery of DNA (New York: Dover), p. 354.
48. Pias (2016), p. 128.
49. Conway and Siegelman (2005), pp. 217–29.
50. Husbands, P. and Holland, O. (2008), in P. Husbands, et al. (eds.), The Mechanical Mind in History (London: MIT Press), pp. 91–148; Pickering, A. (2010), The Cybernetic Brain: Sketches of Another Future (London: University of Chicago Press).
51. Husbands and Holland (2008), pp. 116–17; Husbands, P. and Holland, O. (2012), Interdisciplinary Science Reviews 37:237–53.
52. Hodges (2012), p. 251. From Hodges’s interview with Turing’s student Robin Gandy.
53. Pias (2016), pp. 474–9.
54. Soni and Goodman (2017), p. 204. Чтобы посмотреть полный фильм, см. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vPKkXibQXGA.
55. Pias (2016), p. 478.
56. Soni and Goodman (2017), p. 205.
57. Pias (2016), p. 346.
58. Знаю, это не имеет смысла. Это шутка Доктора Кто.
59. Paul Mandel, ‘Deux ex Machina’, The Harvard Crimson, 5 May 1950.
60. Riskin (2016), p. 321.
61. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wQE82derooc.
62. Pias (2016), pp. 593–619; Dupuy, J.-P. (2009), On the Origins of Cognitive Science: The Mechanization of the Mind (London: MIT Press), pp. 148–50.
63. Книга Эшби объясняет меньше, чем обещает ее название – Ashby, R. (1952), Design for a Brain (London: Chapman & Hall). Исследования гомеостата варьируются от полезных (e.g. Cariani, P., 2009, International Journal of General Systems 38:139–54) до невыносимо туманных (Dupuy, 2009).
64. Dupuy (2009); Boden (2006), vol. 1, pp. 222–32.
65. Ryle, G. (1949), The Concept of Mind (London: Hutchinson); Turing, A. (1950), Mind 59:433–60.
66. Turing (1950), p. 442.
67. Там же, p. 455.
68. MacKay, D. (1951), British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 2:105–21, p. 120.
69. Laslett, P. (ed.) (1950), The Physical Basis of Mind (Oxford: Blackwell); Young, J. (1951), Doubt and Certainty in Science: A Biologist’s Reflection on the Brain (Oxford: Clarendon).
70. Young (1951), pp. 50–51.
71. Sherrington, C. (1940), Man on his Nature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), p. 225.
72. Smith, R. (2001), Science in Context 14:511–39.
73. Sherrington (1940), p. 357.
74. McCulloch and Pitts (1943), p. 132.
Настоящее
1. Fields, R. (2018), Journal of Neuroscience 38:9311–17; Carandini, M. (2019), Neuron 102:732–4.
2. Hughes, J. and Soderqvist, T. (1999), Endeavour 23:1–2.
10. Память. 1950-е годы – настоящее время
1. Eccles, J. and Feindel, F. (1978), Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 24:473–513; Lewis, J. (1981), Something Hidden: A Biography of Wilder Penfield (Toronto: Doubleday).
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3. Lashley, K. (1950), Symposia of the Society for Experimental Biology 4:454–82; Bruce, D. (2001), Journal of the History of the Neurosciences 10:308–18.
4. Lashley (1950), pp. 477–8.
5. Penfield (1952), p. 185.
6. Там же, p. 196.
7. Penfield, W. (1954), in J. Delafresnaye (ed.), Brain Mechanisms and Consciousness (Oxford: Blackwell Scientific), pp. 284–304, p. 306.
8. Higgins, J., et al. (1956), Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 76:399–419; Jacobs, J., et al. (2012), Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 24:553–63.
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16. Цитаты и материалы взяты из того же источника, pp. 12, 62, 70, 76, 197, 166.
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20. В 2018 году Милнер отпраздновала свое 100-летие; она продолжала работать и после 90 лет.
21. Scoville and Milner (1957).
22. Shepherd, G. (2010), Creating Modern Neuroscience: The Revolutionary 1950s (Oxford: Oxford University Press), p. 173. Я нашел эту превосходную книгу бесценной.
23. Dittrich (2016), p. 233.
24. Milner et al. (1968); Dittrich (2016).
25. Scoville and Milner (1957).
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27. Dittrich (2016), p. 230.
28. Tolman, E. (1949), Psychological Review 55:189–208. Тревожно, что результаты, на которых Толман основывал свою теорию, в то время не могли быть воспроизведены. См., например: Gentry, G., et al. (1948), Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 41:312–18.
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33. O ’Keefe (2014); Moser, E. (2014), https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2014/edvard-moser/lecture; Moser, M.-B. (2014), https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2014/may-britt-moser/lecture.
34. Maguire, E., et al. (1998), Science 280:921–4; Maguire, E., et al. (2000), Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 97:4398–403. О том, как не удалось обнаружить такой эффект у обычных водителей, см. Weisberg, S., et al. (2019), Cortex 115:280–93.
35. Butler, W., et al. (2019), Science 363:1447–52; Baraduc, P., et al. (2019), Science 363:635–9.
36. Omer, D., et al. (2018), Science 359:218–24; Danjo, T., et al. (2018), Science 359:213–18.
37. Wilson, M. and McNaughton, B. (1994),