Сноски
1
Kashmir Hill, “The Secretive Company That Might End Privacy as We Know It”, New York Times, January 18, 2020, www.nytimes.com/2020/01/18/technology/clearview-privacy-facial-recognition.html.
2
Kashmir Hill, “Before Clearview Became a Police Tool, It Was a Secret Plaything of the Rich”, New York Times, March 5, 2020, www.nytimes.com/2020/03/05/technology/clearview-investors.html.
3
Принадлежит Мете, которая признана экстремистской на территории РФ.
4
Hill, “Secretive Company”.
5
John Fasman, “Data Detectives”, The Economist, Technology Quarterly: Justice, June 2, 2018.
6
Ржавый пояс, известный также как Индустриальный или Фабричный пояс, – часть Среднего Запада и Восточного побережья США, в котором с начала промышленной революции и до 1970-х годов были сосредоточены сталелитейное производство и другие отрасли американской тяжелой промышленности. – Прим. ред.
7
Philip Roth, The Counterlife (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1986), 237.
8
ShotSpotter, 2020 Annual Report, available at https://ir.shotspotter.com/annual-reports.
9
Если сотрудник полиции останавливает и обыскивает кого-либо, не имея веских оснований для ареста, это не является неконституционным действием при условии, что у сотрудника есть обоснованные подозрения в том, что человек совершил, совершает или собирается совершить преступление. Но, как объяснила судья Шира Шейндлин из Окружного суда Соединенных Штатов по Южному округу Нью-Йорка в деле Флойд против города Нью-Йорк, 959 F. Supp. 2d 540 (2013), «на практике правила поощряют преследование молодых чернокожих и испаноязычных мужчин, поскольку они чаще всего фигурируют в поступающих жалобах на преступления. Это форма расового профилирования» и, следовательно, противоречит конституции.
10
Monte Reel, “Secret Cameras Record Baltimore’s Every Move from Above”, Bloomberg Businessweek, August 23, 2016, www.bloomberg.com/features/2016-baltimore-secret-surveillance.
11
Jay Stanley, “Baltimore Aerial Surveillance Program Retained Data Despite 45-Day Privacy Policy Limit”, American Civil Liberties Union, October 25, 2016, www.aclu.org/blog/privacy-technology/surveillance-technologies/baltimore-aerial-surveillance-program-retained.
12
Блог Lawfare, посвященный острым вопросам национальной безопасности, предлагает по-своему выдающуюся дискуссию о доктрине третьей стороны в заметке: Michael Bahar, David Cook, Varun Shingari, Curtis Arnold, “Third-Party Party-Crashing? The Fate of the Third-Party Doctrine”, October 19, 2017, www.lawfareblog.com/third-party-party-crashing-fate-third-party-doctrine.
13
ACLU против USDOJ, Гражданский иск 19-cv-00920-EMC, поданный в Окружной суд Соединенных Штатов по Северному округу Калифорнии (Сан-Франциско) 6 сентября 2019 года.
14
Clare Garvie, Alvaro Bedoya, Jonathan Frankle, “The Perpetual Line-Up: Unregulated Police Facial Recognition in America”, Georgetown Law, Center on Privacy and Technology, October 18, 2016, www.perpetuallineup.org.
15
Jan Ransom, Ashley Southall, “NYPD Detectives Gave a Boy, 12, a Soda. He Landed in a DNA Database”, New York Times, August 15, 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/08/15/nyregion/nypd-dna-database.html.
16
www.predpol.com/how-predictive-policing-works.
17
Часто задаваемые вопросы о миссиях www.shotspotter.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Missions-FAQ-External-website-FAQ-9–1–19.pdf.
18
Издано на русском языке. О’Нил К. Убийственные большие данные. М.: АСТ, 2018.
19
Jacob Snow, “Amazon’s Face Recognition Falsely Matched 28 Members of Congress with Mugshots”, American Civil Liberties Union, July 26, 2018, www.aclu.org/blog/privacy-technology/surveillance-technologies/amazons-face-recognition-falsely-matched-28.
20
Принадлежит Мете, которая признана экстремистской на территории РФ.
21
Taylor Tiamoyo Harris, “Everyone Can Now Patrol This City’s Streets for Crime. ACLU Says That’s a Bad Idea”, NJ.com, January 30, 2019, www.nj.com/essex/2018/05/newark_the_world_is_watching_you.html.
22
Bill Budington, “Ring Doorbell App Packed with Third Party Trackers”, Electronic Frontier Foundation, January 27, 2020, www.eff.org/deeplinks/2020/01/ring-doorbell-app-packed-third-party-trackers.
23
Alfred Ng, “Amazon’s Helping Police Build a Surveillance Network with Ring Doorbells”, CNET, June 5, 2019, www.cnet.com/features/amazons-helping-police-build-a-surveillance-network-with-ring-doorbells.
24
Jacob Snow, “Amazon’s Disturbing Plan to Add Face Surveillance to Your Front Door”, American Civil Liberties Union, December 12, 2018, www.aclu.org/blog/privacy-technology/surveillance-technologies/amazons-disturbing-plan-add-face-surveillance-you.
25
Jerry Ratcliffe, “Video Surveillance of Public Places”, Response Guide No. 4, Arizona State University, Center for Problem-Oriented Policing, 2006, https://popcenter.asu.edu/content/video-surveillance-public-places-2.
26
“Automated License Plate Readers: To Better Protect Individuals’ Privacy, Law Enforcement Must Increase Its Safeguards for the Data It Collects”, California State Auditor, Report 2019–118, February 2020, www.auditor.ca.gov/reports/2019-118/index.html.
27
ACLU написал отличное пособие по программе слежки за мусульманами полиции Нью-Йорка. См. “Factsheet: The NYPD Muslim Surveillance Program”, American Civil Liberties Union, n. d., www.aclu.org/other/factsheet-nypd-muslim-surveillance-program.
28
“Privacy Impact Assessment Report for the Utilization of License-Plate Readers”, International Association of Chiefs of Police, September 2009, www.theiacp.org/sites/default/files/all/k-m/LPR_Privacy_Impact_Assessment.pdf, 15.
29
Dave Maass, Beryl Lipton, “Data Driven: Explore How Cops Are Collecting and Sharing Our Travel Patterns Using Automated License Plate Readers”, Electronic Frontier Foundation, n. d., www.eff.org/pages/automated-license-plate-reader-dataset.
30
“Automatic License Plate Readers”, American Civil Liberties Union of New York, n. d., www.nyclu.org/en/automatic-license-plate-readers.
31
“Automated License Plate Readers: State Statutes”, National Council of State Legislatures, March 15, 2019, www.ncsl.org/research/telecommunications-and-information-technology/state-statutes-regulating-the-use-of-automated-license-plate-readers-alpr-or-alpr-data.aspx.
32
Kenneth Lipp, “License to Connive: Boston Still Tracks Vehicles, Lies About It, and Leaves Sensitive Resident Data Exposed Online”, Dig Boston, September 8, 2015, https://digboston.com/license-to-connive-boston-still-tracks-vehicles-lies-about-it-and-leaves-sensitive-resident-data-exposed-online.
33
Zack Whittaker, “Police License Plate Readers Are Still Exposed on the Internet”, Tech Crunch, January 22, 2019, https://techcrunch.com/2019/01/22/police-alpr-license-plate-readers-accessible-internet.
34
Dave Maass, Beryl Lipton, “EFF and MuckRock Release Records and Data from 200 Law Enforcement Agencies’ Automated License Plate Reader Programs”, Electronic Frontier Foundation, November 15, 2018; Dave Maass, “EFF and MuckRock Are Filing a Thousand Public Records Requests About ALPR Data Sharing”, Electronic Frontier Foundation, February 16, 2018, www.eff.org/deeplinks/2018/02/eff-and-muckrock-are-filing-thousand-public-records-requests-alpr-data-sharing.
35
Vasudha Talla, “Documents Reveal ICE Using Driver Location Data from Local Police for Deportations”, American Civil Liberties Union, March 13, 2019, www.aclu.org/blog/immigrants-rights/ice-and-border-patrol-abuses/documents-reveal-ice-using-driver-location-data.
36
Todd C. Frankel, “The Surprising Return of the Repo Man”, Washington Post, May 15, 2018, www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/the-surprising-return-of-the-repo-man/2018/05/15/26fcd30e-4d5a-11e8-af46-b1d6dc0d9bfe_story.html.
37
Dave Maass and Jeremy Gillula, “What You Can Learn from Oakland’s Raw ALPR Data”, Electronic Frontier Foundation, January 21, 2015, www.eff.org/deeplinks/2015/01/what-we-learned-oakland-raw-alpr-data.
38
Принадлежит Мете, которая признана экстремистской на территории РФ.
39
Jillian B. Carr, Jennifer L. Doleac, “The Geography, Incidence, and Underreporting of Gun Violence: New Evidence Using ShotSpotter Data”, Brookings Institution, April 27, 2016, www.brookings.edu/research/the-geography-incidence-and-underreporting-of-gun-violence-new-evidence-using-shotspotter-data.
40
Aaron Karp, “Estimating Global Civilian-Held Firearms Numbers”, Small Arms Survey, Briefing Paper, June 2018, www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/T-Briefing-Papers/SAS-BP-Civilian-Firearms-Numbers.pdf.
41
Matt Drange, “ShotSpotter Alerts Police to Lots of Gunfire, but Produces Few Tangible Results”, Forbes, November 17, 2016, www.forbes.com/sites/mattdrange/2016/11/17/shotspotter-alerts-police-to-lots-of-gunfire-but-produces-few-tangible-results/#c6dc0e5229ed.
42
“ShotSpotter Frequently Asked Questions”, January 2018, www.shotspotter.com/system/content-uploads/SST_FAQ_January_2018.pdf.
43
Rick Smith, The End of Killing: How Our Newest Technologies Can Solve Humanity’s Oldest Problem (Vancouver, BC: Page Two Books, 2019).
44
CEO, или Chief Executive Officer – высшая управленческая должность, существующая в странах с англосаксонской экономической моделью. – Прим. ред.
45
Ежегодный отчет Axon 2019, доступный по ссылке: https://investor.axon.com/financials/Annual-Reports-Proxies/default.aspx.
46
“Investigation of the Ferguson Police Department”, US Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division, March 4, 2015, www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/opa/press-releases/attachments/2015/03/04/ferguson_police_department_report.pdf.
47
“Body-Worn Camera Program Fact Shee”, US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Assistance, n. d., https://bja.ojp.gov/sites/g/files/xyckuh186/files/bwc/pdfs/BWCPIP-Award-Fact-Sheet.pdf.
48
Kimberly Kindy, “Some U. S. Police Departments Dump Body-Camera Programs amid High Costs”, Washington Post, January 21, 2019; “Body-Worn Cameras (BWCs),” US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Assistance, June 26, 2015, https://bja.ojp.gov/program/body-worn-cameras-bwcs/overview.
49
“Cost and Benefits of Body-Worn Camera Deployments”, Police Executive Research Forum, April 2018, www.policeforum.org/assets/BWCCostBenefit.pdf.
50
H.R. 7028: DHS Body-Worn Camera Act of 2018, sponsored by Filemon Vela (D-TX), introduced October 2, 2018; Police CAMERA Act of 2019, sponsored by Steve Cohen, (D-TN), introduced January 3, 2019.
51
Vivian Hung, Steven Babin, Jacqueline Coberly, “A Market Survey on Body Worn Camera Technologies”, prepared by the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory for the US Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, 2016, www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/250381.pdf.
52
Albert Fox Cahn, “How Bodycams Distort Real Life”, New York Times, August 8, 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/08/08/opinion/bodycams-privacy.html.
53
Emily Ekins, “Cato/YouGov Poll: 92 % Support Police Body Cameras, 55 % Willing to Pay More in Taxes to Equip Local Police”, Cato at Liberty, January 5, 2016, www.cato.org/blog/catoyougov-poll-92-support-police-body-cameras-55-willing-pay-more-taxes-equip-local-police.
54
Katie Miller, “A Surprising Downside of Bodycams”, Slate, May 3, 2019, https://slate.com/technology/2019/05/body-worn-cameras-police-officers-discretion.html.
55
Lindsay Miller, Jessica Toliver, Police Executive Research Forum, Implementing a Body-Worn Camera Program: Recommendations and Lessons Learned (Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, 2014).
56
Alex S. Vitale, “Baltimore Body Camera Controversy Grows”, The Appeal, September 19, 2017, https://theappeal.org/baltimore-body-camera-controversy-grows-9244fe2b211e.
57
Lily Hay Newman, “Police Bodycams Can Be Hacked to Doctor Footage”, Wired, August 11, 2018, www.wired.com/story/police-body-camera-vulnerabilities.
58
Miller et al., Implementing a Body-Worn Camera Program.
59
“Cost and Benefits of Body-Worn Camera Deployments”.
60
“Police Body-Worn Cameras: A Policy Scorecard”, Upturn and the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, updated November 2017, www.bwcscorecard.org.
61
David Yokum, Anita Ravishankar, Alexander Coppock, “Evaluating the Effects of Police Body Worn Cameras: A Randomized Controlled Trial”, The Lab @ DC, Working Paper, October 20, 2017, https://bwc.thelab.dc.gov/TheLabDC_MPD_BWC_Working_Paper_10.20.17.pdf.
62
Anthony Braga, James R. Coldren Jr., William Sousa, Denise Rodriguez, Omer Alper, “The Benefits of Body-Worn Cameras: New Findings from a Randomized Controlled Trial at the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department”, National Institute of Justice Document no. 251416, www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/251416.pdf.
63
Ryan Stokes, Lee Rankin, Tony Filler, “End-of-Program Evaluation and Recommendations: On-Officer Body Camera System”, Mesa Police Department, Arizona, December 3, 2013, www.bwvsg.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/On-Officer_Body_Camera_Field_Study.pdf.
64
“Self-Awareness to Being Watched and Socially-Desirable Behavior: A Field Experiment on the Effect of Body Worn Cameras on Police Use-of-Force”, National Police Foundation, March 2013, www.policefoundation.org/publication/self-awareness-to-being-watched-and-socially-desirable-behavior-a-field-experiment-on-the-effect-of-body-worn-cameras-on-police-use-of-force.
65
Barak Ariel, Alex Sutherland, Darren Henstock, Josh Young, Paul Drover, Jayne Sykes, Simon Megicks, Ryan Henderson, “Report: Increases in Police Use of Force in the Presence of Body-Worn Cameras Are Driven by Officer Discretion: A Protocol-Based Subgroup Analysis of Ten Randomized Experiments”, Journal of Experimental Criminology 12 (2016): 453–463.
66
Jeffrey Bellin and Shevarma Pemberton, “Policing the Admissibility of Body Camera Evidence”, Fordham Law Review 87, no. 4 (2019): 1428, 1425.
67
Дело Тимоти Скотт против Виктора Харриса, 550 U.S. 372 (2007).
68
Дело Пламхофф против Рикарда, 572 U.S. 765 (2014).
69
Дело Блэкстон против штата Алабама, 30 F.3d 117 (11th Cir. 1994).
70
Дело Смит против города Камминга, 212 F.3d 1332 (11th Cir. 2000).
71
Дело Глик против Канниффа, 655 F.3d 78 (1st Cir. 2011).
72
Am. Civil Liberties Union of IL v. Alvarez, No. 11–1286 (7th Cir. 2012).
73
Дело Филдс против города Филадельфии и Гераси против города Филадельфии, No. 16–1650 (3d Cir. 2017); Turner v. Driver, No. 16–10312 (5th Cir. 2017).
74
“ACLU Apps to Record Police Conduct”, American Civil Liberties Union, n. d., www.aclu.org/issues/criminal-law-reform/reforming-police/aclu-apps-record-police-conduct.
75
www.raheem.ai.
76
Дело Пирсон против Рэя, 386 U.S. 547 (1967).
77
Дело Джессоп против города Фресно, 936 F.3d 937 (9th Cir. 2019).
78
Black Lives Matter, или BLM (с англ. «Жизни черных имеют значение») – общественное движение, выступающее против расизма и насилия в отношении чернокожих, в особенности против полицейского насилия. – Прим. ред.
79
Frank Edwards, Hedwig Lee, Michael Esposito, “Risk of Being Killed by Police Use of Force in the United States by Age, Race-Ethnicity, and Sex”, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, August 20, 2019, www.pnas.org/content/116/34/16793.
80
“Race and the Drug War”, Drug Policy Alliance, n. d., www.drugpolicy.org/issues/race-and-drug-war
81
Принадлежит Мете, которая признана экстремистской на территории РФ.
82
Террористическая организация, запрещенная на территории РФ.
83
Приказ, обязывающий компанию Apple, Inc. оказывать содействие агентам в их поисках; выдан мировым судьей США Шери Пим в Окружном суде Соединенных Штатов по Центральному округу Калифорнии 16 февраля 2016 г., доступен в Министерстве юстиции США, Прокуратуре США по Центральному округу Калифорнии, www.justice.gov/usao-cdca/file/825001/download.
84
Тим Кук написал свое письмо в тот же день.
85
“A Special Inquiry Regarding the Accuracy of FBI Statements Concerning Its Capabilities to Exploit an iPhone Seized During the San Bernardino Terror Attack Investigation”, US Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, Oversight and Review Division 18–03, March 2018, https://oig.justice.gov/reports/2018/o1803.pdf.
86
Заявление, опубликованное 28 марта 2016 г.; см. Alina Selyukh, “The FBI Has Success- fully Unlocked The iPhone Without Apple’s Help”, NPR, March 28, 2016, www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/03/28/472192080/the-fbi-has-successfully-unlocked-the-iphone-without-apples-help.
87
Joseph Bonneau, “A Technical Perspective on the Apple iPhone Case”, Electronic Frontier Foundation, February 19, 2016, www.eff.org/deeplinks/2016/02/technical-perspective-apple-iphone-case.
88
Joseph Cox, “Here Are the Terms for Cellebrite’s iPhone Unlocking Service”, Vice, January 17, 2017, www.vice.com/en_us/article/78kadd/here-are-the-terms-for-cellebrites-iphone-unlocking-service.
89
Дело Рили против Калифорнии, 573 U.S. 373 (2014).
90
Подробное и вдумчивое обсуждение пограничного исключения см. в статье “The Border Search Muddle”, Harvard Law Review, June 1, 2019, https://harvardlawreview.org/2019/06/the-border-search-muddle.
91
Подробное объяснение дела Ригмейдена, в том числе его чертежи тогдашнего хитрого стингрэя, сделанные в тюремной камере, см. в книге Rebecca McCray, “From Con Artist to Government Combatant: A Recluse Comes out of Hiding”, Takepart, February 4, 2016, www.takepart.com/article/2016/02/04/daniel-rigmaiden-stingray-truth-and-power.
92
Kim Zetter, “U. S. Marshals Seize Cops’ Spying Records to Keep Them from the ACLU”, Wired, June 3, 2014, www.wired.com/2014/06/feds-seize-stingray-documents.
93
Adam Bates, “Stingrays: A New Frontier in Police Surveillance”, Cato Institute, Policy Analysis No. 809, January 25, 2017, www.cato.org/publications/policy-analysis/stingray-new-frontier-police-surveillance.
94
Дело Руденберг против Главного заместителя генерального прокурора Департамента юстиции штата Делавэр, N16A-02–006 RRC (Del. Super. Ct. 2016). Соответствующие судебные материалы см. в “Rudenberg v. Delaware DOJ”, American Civil Liberties Union of Delaware, www.aclu-de.org/en/cases/new-police-spying-documents-obtained-foia-lawsuit.
95
За последующее обсуждение я особенно признателен Рэйчел Левинсон-Уолдман из Центра Бреннана, а также Дейву Маассу и Куперу Куинтону из Фонда Electronic Frontier. Благодарю за их выдающуюся работу, за их время, терпение и проницательность; любые ошибки, конечно, только мои.
96
“Street-Level Surveillance: Cell-Site Simulators / IMSI Catchers”, Electronic Frontier Foundation, n. d., www.eff.org/pages/cell-site-simulatorsimsi-catchers.
97
Система называется Seaglass; она невероятно крутая, и я благодарен ее разработчику Питеру Нею за то, что он описал ее мне.
98
Jose Pagliery, “ICE in New York Has a Spy Tool to Hunt Undocumented Immigrants via Their Cell Phones”, Univision, October 17, 2019, www.univision.com/local/nueva-york-wxtv/ice-in-new-york-has-a-spy-tool-to-hunt-undocumented-immigrants-via-their-cell-phones. В письме от 17 августа 2017 года Томас Хоман, тогдашний исполняющий обязанности директора ICE, сообщил сенатору Уайдену, что ICE использует стингрэи только «для поддержки уголовных расследований, требующих судебного разбирательства, а не для административных нарушений в соответствии с Законом о миграции и гражданстве». См. Thomas D. Homan to The Honorable Ron Wyden, August 16, 2017, DocumentCloud.org, https://assets.documentcloud.org/documents/3935329/88437-Signed-Response.pdf.
99
Alexia Ramirez, Bobby Hodgson, “ICE and CBP Are Secretly Tracking Us Using Stingrays. We’re Suing”, American Civil Liberties Union, December 11, 2019, www.aclu.org/news/privacy-technology/ice-and-cbp-are-secretly-tracking-us-using-stingrays-were-suing.
100
Подробная информация об этих случаях доступна в разделе “Street-Level Surveillance: Cell-Site Simulators / IMSI Catchers”.
101
Bates, “Stingrays”.
102
Политика, объявленная 3 сентября 2015 года.
103
Текст письма доступен на веб-сайте сенатора Чака Грассли; см. “Leahy and Grassley Press Administration on Use of Cell Phone Tracking Program”, December 31, 2014, www.grassley.senate.gov/news/news-releases/leahy-grassley-press-administration-use-cell-phone-tracking-program.
104
Дело Соединенные Штаты против Джонса, 565 U.S. 400 (2012).
105
Сегодня перьевыми самописцами в США называют регистраторы телефонных звонков. – Прим. пер.
106
Дело Карпентер против Соединенных Штатов, 585 U.S. ___ (2018).
107
“Privacy Impact Assessment for the Traveler Verification Service”, US Department of Homeland Security, DHS/CBP/PIA-056, November 14, 2018, www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/privacy-pia-cbp030-tvs-november2018_2.pdf.
108
Офис генерального инспектора Министерства юстиции проверил, как ФБР ведет дело Мэйфилда. Это довольно мрачный текст. См. “A Review of the FBI’s Handling of the Brandon Mayfield Case”, US Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, Oversight and Review Division, March 2006, https://oig.justice.gov/special/s0601/final.pdf.
109
Проект California Innosence, как и отчет Министерства юстиции, негативно относится к доказательствам в виде следов укусов. См. “Relevant Cases: William Richards”, California Innocence Project, n. d., https://californiainnocenceproject.org/issues-we-face/bite-mark-evidence; Committee on Identifying the Needs of the Forensic Science Community; Committee on Science, Technology, and Law Policy and Global Affairs; Committee on Applied and Theoretical Statistics Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences; and National Research Council of the National Academies, Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2009), доступно по ссылке www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/228091.pdf.
110
Заявление Кимберли Дж. Дель Греко перед Комитетом палаты представителей по надзору и правительственной реформе, 22 марта 2017 г., www.fbi.gov/news/testimony/law-enforcements-use-of-facial-recognition-technology.
111
Matt Wood, “Thoughts on Machine Learning Accuracy”, AWS News Blog, July 27, 2018, https://aws.amazon.com/blogs/aws/thoughts-on-machine-learning-accuracy.
112
Joy Buolamwini, Timrit Gebru, “Gender Shades: Intersectional Accuracy Disparities in Commercial Gender Classification”, Proceedings of Machine Learning Research 81 (2018): 77–91.
113
Набор данных “Разнообразие в лицах”, опубликованный 29 января 2019 года. См. John R. Smith, “IBM Research Releases ‘Diversity in Faces’ Dataset to Advance Study of Fairness in Facial Recognition Systems”, IBM, January 29, 2019, www.ibm.com/blogs/research/2019/01/diversity-in-faces.
114
Steve Lohr, “Facial Recognition Is Accurate, if You’re a White Guy”, New York Times, February 9, 2018, www.nytimes.com/2018/02/09/technology/facial-recognition-race-artificial-intelligence.html.
115
Patrick Grother, Mei Ngan, Kayee Hanaoka, “Ongoing Face Recognition Vendor Test (FRVT). Part 2: Identification”, NIST Interagency/Internal Report (NISTIR) 8238, National Institute of Standards and Technology, November 2018, https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/ir/2018/NIST.IR.8238.pdf.
116
Patrick Grother, Mei Ngan, and Kayee Hanaoka, “Face Recognition Vendor Test (FRVT). Part 3: Demographic Effects”, NIST Interagency/Internal Report (NISTIR) 8280, National Institute of Standards and Technology, December 2019, https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/ir/2019/NIST.IR.8280.pdf.
117
“Using Facial Recognition Systems”, Washington County Sheriff’s Office (Oregon), Policy #808-R03, effective January 4, 2019, www.co.washington.or.us/Sheriff/Policies/800/upload/808-R03-FINAL-Using-Facial-Recognition-Systems-01-04-19.pdf.
118
James O’Neill, “How Facial Recognition Makes You Safer”, New York Times, June 9, 2019; “Patrol Guide”, New York City Police Department, March 12, 2020, www1.nyc.gov/assets/nypd/downloads/pdf/nypd-facial-recognition-patrol-guide.pdf.
119
Принадлежит Мете, которая признана экстремистской на территории РФ.
120
Clare Garvie, “Garbage In, Garbage Out: Facial Recognition on Flawed Data”, Georgetown Law, Center on Privacy and Technology, May 16, 2019, www.flawedface data.com.
121
Drew Harwell, “FBI, ICE Find State Driver’s License Photos Are a Gold Mine for Facial-Recognition Searches”, Washington Post, July 7, 2019, www.wash- ingtonpost.com/technology/2019/07/07/fbi-ice-find-state-drivers-license-photos-are-gold-mine-facial-recognition-searches.
122
Drew Harwell, Erin Cox, “ICE Has Run Facial-Recognition Searches on Millions of Maryland Drivers”, Washington Post, February 26, 2020, www.washington post.com/technology/2020/02/26/ice-has-run-facial-recognition-searches-millions-maryland-drivers.
123
Можно перевести как Вечная шеренга для опознания. – Прим. пер.
124
Clare Garvie, Alvaro Bedoya, Jonathan Frankle, “The Perpetual Line-Up: Unregulated Police Face Recognition in America”, Georgetown Law, Center on Privacy and Technology, October 18, 2016, www.perpetuallineup.org.
125
“In Your Face: China’s All-Seeing State”, BBC, December 10, 2017, www.bbc.com/news/av/world-asia-china-42248056/in-your-face-china-s-all-seeing-state.
126
Clare Garvie, Laura M. Moy, “America Under Watch: Face Surveillance in the United States”, Georgetown Law, Center on Privacy and Technology, May 16, 2019, www.americaunderwatch.com.
127
Dave Gershgorn, “Exclusive: Live Facial-Recognition Is Coming to U. S. Police Body Cameras”, OneZero, March 4, 2020, https://onezero.medium.com/exclusive-live-facial-recognition-is-coming-to-u-s-police-body-cameras-bc9036918ae0.
128
Директива 307.5 отдела полиции Детройта, одобренная 12 сентября 2019 г.
129
Allie Gross, Ross Jones, “New Rules over Facial Recognition Approved, but Distrust and Confusion Remain”, WXYS News, September 20, 2019, www.wxyz.com/news/local-news/investigations/new-rules-over-facial-recognition-approved-but-distrust-and-confusion-remain.
130
Принадлежит Мете, которая признана экстремистской на территории РФ.
131
Дело Патель против Facebook[19], Inc., № 18–15982 (9 декабря 2019 года).
132
Нейтральный номер ссылки: [2019] EWHC 2341 (Admin), дело №: CO/4085/2018, решение принято 4 сентября 2019 года.
133
Дело Карпентер против Соединенных Штатов, № 16–402, 585 U.S. ____ (2018).
134
Matt Cagle, Nicole Ozer, “Amazon Teams Up with Government to Deploy Dangerous New Facial Recognition Technology”, American Civil Liberties Union, May 22, 2018, www.aclu.org/blog/privacy-technology/surveillance-technologies/amazon-teams-government-deploy-dangerous-new.
135
Michael Punke, “Some Thoughts on Facial Recognition Legislation”, AWS Machine Learning Blog, February 7, 2019, https://aws.amazon.com/blogs/machine-learning/some-thoughts-on-facial-recognition-legislation.
136
“First Report of the Axon AI & Policing Technology Ethics Board”, June 2019, https://static1.squarespace.com/static/58a33e881b631bc60d4f8b31/t/5d13d7e1990c4f00014c0aeb/1561581540954/Axon_Ethics_Board_First_Report.pdf.
137
Robin Emmott, “Mexico’s Ciudad Juarez, the World’s Most Violent City?” Reuters, August 28, 2009, http://blogs.reuters.com/global/2009/08/28/violent-ciudad-juarez.
138
Таблица 1. Количество, процент и общий показатель убийств в разбивке по полу, расе / этнической принадлежности и возрастной группе – National Vital Statistics System, United States, 2007 and 2009, // Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, “Homicides – United States, 2007 and 2009”, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Supplements 62, no. 3 (November 22, 2013), www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/su6203a28.htm#Tab1; Francesca Mirabile, Daniel Nass, “What’s the Homicide Capital of America? Murder Rates in U. S. Cities, Ranked”, The Trace, October 1, 2019, www.thetrace.org/2018/04/highest-murder-rates-us-cities-list.
139
Эти биографические подробности и большая часть последующего обсуждения взяты из моего разговора с Россом Макнаттом.
140
Sarah Ryley, Jeremy Singer-Vine, Sean Campbell, “Shoot Someone in a Major City, and Odds Are You’ll Get Away with It”, The Trace, January 24, 2019, www.thetrace.org/features/murder-solve-rate-gun-violence-baltimore-shootings.
141
Dan Gettinger, “Public Safety Drones, 3rd ed.”, Center for the Study of the Drone at Bard College, March 2020, https://dronecenter.bard.edu/files/2020/03/CSD-Public-Safety-Drones-3rd-Edition-Web.pdf.
142
Федеральные авиационные правила, 14 CFR. Часть 107 – Малые беспилотные авиационные системы.
143
Дело Флорида против Райли, 488 U.S. 445 (1989).
144
Дело Калифорния против Чираоло, 476, U.S. 207 (1986).
145
Дело Соединенные Штаты против Коусби, 328 U.S. 256 (1946).
146
Я присутствовал на этой конференции и видел выступление Фрейзера.
147
Maria Valdovinos, James Specht, Jennifer Zeunik, “Community Policing & Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS): Guidelines to Enhance Community Trust”, National Police Foundation and US Department of Justice, Community Oriented Policing Service, 2016, www.policefoundation.org/publication/community-policing-unmanned-aircraft-systems-uas-guidelines-to-enhance-community-trust.
148
“Voluntary Best Practices for UAS Privacy, Transparency and Accountability”, National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA), May 18, 2016, www.ntia.doc.gov/files/ntia/publications/uas_privacy_best_practices_6-21-16.pdf.
149
“Drone Laws: Federal, State, and Local Drone Regulations”, 911 Security, www.911security.com/learn/airspace-security/drone-laws-rules-and-regulations.
150
Arthur Holland Michel, Dan Gettinger, “Drone Incidents: A Survey of Legal Cases”, Center for the Study of the Drone at Bard College, April 2017, https://dronecenter.bard.edu/drone-incidents.
151
Gregory McNeal, “Drones and Aerial Surveillance: Considerations for Legislatures”, Brookings Institution, November 2014, www.brookings.edu/research/drones-and-aerial-surveillance-considerations-for-legislatures.
152
Kevin Rector, “Surveillance Company Wants Baltimore to Put Three of Its Planes over the City at Once”, Washington Post, September 25, 2019, www.washingtonpost.com/local/legal-issues/surveillance-company-wants-baltimore-to-put-three-of-its-planes-over-the-city-at-once/2019/09/25/c8bdf4ae-dbfa-11e9-ac63-3016711543fe_story.html.
153
Louis Krauss, “In Baltimore, Complaints About the Sounds of Surveillance”, Baltimore Brew, May 13, 2020, https://baltimorebrew.com/2020/05/13/in-baltimore-complaints-about-the-sounds-of-surveillance.
154
Justin Fenton, Talia Richman, “Baltimore Police Back Pilot Program for Surveillance Planes, Reviving Controversial Program”, Baltimore Sun, December 20, 2019, www.baltimoresun.com/news/crime/bs-md-ci-cr-baltimore-police-support-surveil-lance-plane-20191220-zfhd5ndtlbdurlj5xfr6xhoe2i-story.html; Emily Opilo, “ACLU Sues Baltimore Police over Contract for Private Planes to Survey City for Photographic Evidence of Crime”, Baltimore Sun, April 9, 2020, www.baltimoresun.com/politics/bs-md-ci-baltimore-spy-plane-lawsuit-20200409-owedgyfulfhblgscuyv73ykd7y-story.html.
155
Wendy Sawyer, Peter Wagner, “Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2020”, Prison Policy Initiative, March 24, 2020, www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/pie2020.html.
156
“Why We Need Pretrial Reform”, Pretrial Justice Institute, n. d., www.pretrial.org/get-involved/learn-more/why-we-need-pretrial-reform.
157
Килгорд ведет базу данных своих работ по электронному мониторингу. См. “Chal-lenging E-Carceration”, www.challengingecarceration.org/author/jjincu.
158
Jan Bungerfeldt, “Old and New Uses of Electronic Monitoring in Sweden”, Centre for Crime and Justice Studies, 2013, www.crimeandjustice.org.uk/sites/crimeandjustice.org.uk/files/09627251.2014.902193.pdf.
159
Rafael Di Tella, Ernesto Schargrodsky, “Criminal Recidivism After Prison and Electronic Monitoring”, Journal of Political Economy 121, no. 1 (2013).
160
Это мне рассказал Дэвид Фейдж. См. также “Lorelei Laird, “The Bail Project Pays Defen-dants’ Bail as Part of Plan to End Money Bail Entirely”, ABA Journal, November 1, 2019, www.abajournal.com/magazine/article/the-bail-project-pays-defendants-bail-as-part-of-a-plan-to-end-money-bail-entirely.
161
Brice Cooke, Binta Zahra Diop, Alissa Fishbane, Jonathan Hayes, Aurelie Ouss, Anuj Shah, “Using Behavioral Science to Improve Criminal Justice Outcomes: Preventing Failures to Appear in Court”, University of Chicago Crime Lab, January 2018, www.courthousenews.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/crim-just-report.pdf.
162
Marie VanNostrand, “New Jersey Jail Population Analysis: Identifying Opportunities to Safely and Responsibly Reduce the Jail Population”, Luminosity in Partnership with the Drug Policy Alliance, March 2013, www.drugpolicy.org/sites/default/files/New_Jersey_Jail_Population_Analysis_March_2013.pdf.
163
“The War on Marijuana in Black and White”, American Civil Liberties Union, June 2013, www.aclu.org/report/report-war-marijuana-black-and-white.
164
Emma Pierson, Camelia Simoiu, Jan Overgoor, Sam Corbett-Davies, Daniel Jenson, Amy Shoemaker, Vignesh Ramachandran, et al., “A Large-Scale Analysis of Racial Disparities in Police Stops Across the United States”, Stanford Computational Policy Lab, March 13, 2019.
165
David Arnold, Will Dobbie, Crystal S. Yang, “Racial Bias in Bail Decisions”, NBER Working Paper 23421, National Bureau of Economics, May 2017.
166
Отчет о преступности штата Нью-Йорк, сентябрь 2019 года.
167
George James, “New York Killings Set a Record, While Other Crimes Fell in 1990”, New York Times, April 23, 1991.
168
“To Restore New York City; First, Reclaim the Streets”, New York Times, December 30, 1990.
169
Многое из того, что следует далее, взято из “COMPSTAT: Its Origins, Evolution and Future in Law Enforcement Agencies”, US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Assistance, and the Police Executive Research Forum, 2013, https://bja.ojp.gov/sites/g/files/xyckuh 186/files/Publications/PERF-Compstat.pdf.
170
“Race and the Drug War”, Drug Policy Alliance, n. d., www.drugpolicy.org/issues/race-and-drug-war.
171
“Strategic Subject List”, Chicago Data Portal, https://data.cityofchicago.org/Public-Safety/Strategic-Subject-List/4aki-r3np.
172
Jeff Asher, Rob Arthur, “Inside the Algorithm That Tries to Predict Gun Violence in Chicago”, New York Times, June 13, 2017, www.nytimes.com/2017/06/13/upshot/what-an-algorithm-reveals-about-life-on-chicagos-high-risk-list.html; Brianna Posadas, “How Strategic is Chicago’s ‘Strategic Subject List’? Upturn Investigates”, Medium, June 22, 2017, https://medium.com/equal-future/how-strategic-is-chicagos-strategic-subjects-list-upturn-investigates-9e5b4b235a7c.
173
Stephanie Kollman, An Enormous List of Names Does Nothing to Combat Chicago Crime”, Chicago Sun-Times, May 16, 2017, https://chicago.suntimes.com/2017/5/16/1832 1160/an-enormous-list-of-names-does-nothing-to-combat-chicago-crime.
174
Yana Kunichoff, Patrick Sier, “The Contradictions of Chicago Police’s Secretive List”, Chicago, August 21, 2017, www.chicagomag.com/city-life/August-2017/Chicago-Police-Strategic-Subject-List.
175
Jeremy Gormer, Annie Sweeney, “For Years Chicago Police Rated the Risk of Tens of Thousands Being Caught Up in Violence. That Controversial Effort Has Quietly Been Ended”, Chicago Tribune, January 24, 2020, www.chicagotribune.com/news/criminal-justice/ct-chicago-police-strategic-subject-list-ended-20200125-spn4kjmrxrh4tmktdjckhtox4i-story.html.
176
Хорошее введение в DMI см. в “Drug Market Intervention”, National Network for Safe Communities at John Jay College, n. d., https://nnscommunities.org/strategies/drug-market-intervention-2.
177
Jessica Saunders, Priscilla Hunt, and John S. Hollywood, “Predictions Put into Practice: A Quasi-Experimental Evaluation of Chicago’s Predictive Policing Pilot”, Journal of Experimental Criminology 12, no. 3 (2016): 347–371.
178
Julia Dressel and Hany Farid, “The Accuracy, Fairness and Limits of Predicting Recidivism”, Science Advances 4, no. 1 (2018).
179
Julia Angwin, Jeff Larson, Surya Mattu, and Lauren Kirchner, “Machine Bias”, ProPublica, May 23, 2016, www.propublica.org/article/machine-bias-risk-assessments-in-criminal-sentencing.
180
Cynthia Rudin, “Stop Explaining Black Box Machine Learning Models for High Stakes Decisions and Use Interpretable Models Instead”, Nature Machine Intelligence 1 (2019): 206–215.
181
Дело Штат против Лумиса, 881 N.W.2d 746 (2016).
182
Kristian Lum, William Isaac, “To Predict and Serve?”, Royal Statistical Society, October 7, 2016.
183
Rashida Richardson, Jason Schultz, Kate Crawford, “Dirty Data, Bad Predictions: How Civil Rights Violations Impact Police Data, Predictive Policing Systems and Justice”, New York University Law Review 94, no. 192 (2019): 193–233.
184
Sandra G. Mayson, “Bias In, Bias Out”, Yale Law Journal 128, no. 8 (2019): 2122–2473.
185
Принадлежит Мете, которая признана экстремистской на территории РФ.
186
В некоторых юрисдикциях людям с криминальным прошлым запрещено занимать государственное жилье. – Прим. авт.
187
“Intentional Homicide Count and Rate per 100,000 Population, by Country/Territory (2000–2012)”, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, www.insightcrime.org/images/PDFs/UNODChomicides.pdf.
188
Agnes Callamard, “El Salvador End of Mission Statement”, United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner, February 5, 2018, www.ohchr.org/en/News Events/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx? NewsID=22634&LangID=E.
189
“United States Crime Rates, 1960–2018”, The Disaster Center, www.disastercenter.com/crime/uscrime.htm.
190
China – Latin America Finance Database, The Dialogue, www.thedialogue.org /map_list.
191
Adrian Shahbaz, “The Rise of Digital Authoritarianism”, Freedom House, Freedom on the Net series, 2018, https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-net/2018/rise-digital-authoritarianism.
192
Shahbaz, “Rise of Digital Authoritarianism”.
193
Paul Mozur, Jonah M. Kessel, Melissa Chan, “Made in China, Exported to the World: The Surveillance State”, New York Times, April 24, 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/04/24/technology/ecuador-surveillance-cameras-police-government.html.
194
“Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region”, Amnesty USA, www.amnestyusa.org/countries/china/xinjiang.
195
Террористическая организация, запрещенная в РФ.
196
Запрещена в РФ.
197
Adrian Zenz and James Leibold, “Chen Quanguo: The Strongman Behind Beijing’s Securitization Strategy in Tibet and Xinjiang”, Jamestown Foundation, China Brief 17, no. 12 (2017), https://jamestown.org/program/chen-quanguo-the-strongman-behind-beijings-securitization-strategy-in-tibet-and-xinjiang.
198
“China Has Turned Xinjiang into a Police State Like No Other”, The Economist, May 31, 2018, www.economist.com/briefing/2018/05/31/china-has-turned-xinjiang-into-a-police-state-like-no-other.
199
“‘Convenience Police Stations’ to Closely Monitor Uyghurs”, Radio Free Asia, n. d., www.rfa.org/english/news/special/uyghur-oppression/ChenPolicy1.html.
200
“China’s Algorithms of Repression”, Human Rights Watch, May 1, 2019, www.hrw.org/report/2019/05/01/chinas-algorithms-repression/reverse-engineering-xinjiang-police-mass-surveillance.
201
Tracy Shelton, “China Cracks Down on Ramadan Fasting, Prompting Activist Boycott of Chinese Products”, ABC News, May 6, 2019, www.abc.net.au/news/2019-05-07/china-cracks-down-on-fasting-during-ramadan/11082244.
202
Stephanie Nebehay, “1.5 Million Muslims Could Be Detained in China’s Xinjiang: Academic”, Reuters, March 13, 2019, www.reuters.com/article/us-china-xinjiang-rights/15-million-muslims-could-be-detained-in-chinas-xinjiang-academic-idUSKCN1QU2MQ.
203
David Stavrou, “A Million People Are Jailed at China’s Gulags. I Managed to Escape. Here’s What Really Goes On Inside”, Haaretz, October 17, 2019, www.haaretz.com/world-news/.premium.MAGAZINE-a-million-people-are-jailed-at-china-s-gulags-i-escaped-here-s-what-goes-on-inside-1.7994216.
204
Alina Polyakova, Chris Meserole, “Exporting Digital Authoritarianism: The Russian and Chinese Models”, Brookings Institution, August 2019, www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/FP_20190827_digital_authoritarianism_polyakova_meserole.pdf.
205
Paul Mozur, “Inside China’s Dystopian Dreams: A.I., Shame and Lots of Cameras”, New York Times, July 8, 2018, www.nytimes.com/2018/07/08/business/china-surveillance-technology.html.
206
“Chinese Phones Now Account for a Third of the European Market, with Huawei Leading the Way”, The Verge, February 14, 2019, www.theverge.com/2019/2/14/18224614/huawei-chinese-phones-europe-market-share-2018.
207
Glenn Greenwald, “NSA Collecting Phone Records of Millions of Verizon Customers Daily”, The Guardian, June 6, 2013, www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/06/nsa-phone-records-verizon-court-order.
208
Barton Gellman, Aaron Blake, and Greg Miller, “Edward Snowden Comes Forward as Source of NSA Leaks”, Washington Post, June 9, 2013, www.washingtonpost.com/politics/intelligence-leaders-push-back-on-leakers-media/2013/06/09/fff80160-d122-11e2-a73e-826d299ff459_story.html.
209
Ewen MacAskill, Julian Borger, Nick Hopkins, Nick Davies, James Ball, “GCHQ Taps Fibre-Optic Cables for Secret Access to World’s Communications”, The Guardian, June 21, 2013, www.theguardian.com/uk/2013/jun/21/gchq-cables-secret-world-communications-nsa.
210
Glenn Greenwald, Ewen MacAskill, “Obama Orders US to Draw Up Overseas Target List for Cyber-Attacks”, The Guardian, June 7, 2013, www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/07/obama-china-targets-cyber-overseas.
211
Mark Mazzetti, Michael S. Schmidt, “Ex-Worker at C.I.A. Says He Leaked Data on Surveillance”, New York Times, June 9, 2013, www.nytimes.com/2013/06/10/us/former-cia-worker-says-he-leaked-surveillance-data.html.
212
Многое из того, что следует далее, взято из бесед с Джо Деврисом, Мэттом Кейглом, Брайаном Хофером, а также из информации, собранной в Областном центре информирования, Оклендской Википедии, Местной Википедии, https://localwiki.org/oakland/Domain_Awareness_Center.
213
Типовое законодательство и информацию см. в “Community Control over Police Surveillance”, American Civil Liberties Union, www.aclu.org/issues/privacy-technology/surveillance-technologies/community-control-over-police-surveillance.
214
До переезда в Окленд Берч был присяжным офицером в Дейли-Сити, на другом берегу залива; он несколько лет возглавлял отдел исследований и планирования в полиции Окленда, но покинул эту должность вскоре после того, как я поговорил с ним в конце марта 2018 года.
215
В посвящениях означает лучший в своем деле. – Прим. пер.