300 взаимодействия лекарственных препаратов…: Howard R. Strasberg et al., “Inter-Rater Agreement Among Physicians on the Clinical Significance of Drug-Drug Interactions”, AMIA Annual Symposium Proceedings (2013): 1325, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3900147.
301 И все же нефрологи… демонстрируют в своих суждениях…: Wald et al., “Interobserver Reliability of Urine Sediment Interpretation”, https://cjasn.asnjournals.org/content/4/3/567.
302 определение злокачественности поражения молочной железы…: Juan P. Palazzo et al., “Hyperplastic Ductal and Lobular Lesions and Carcinomas in Situ of the Breast: Reproducibility of Current Diagnostic Criteria Among Community-and Academic-Based Pathologists”, Breast Journal 4 (2003): 230, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21223441.
303 пролиферирующего поражения молочной железы…: Rohit K. Jain et al., “Atypical Ductal Hyperplasia: Interobserver and Intraobserver Variability”, Modern Pathology 24 (2011): 917, www.nature.com/articles/modpathol201166.
304 стадии спинального стеноза…: Alex C. Speciale et al., “Observer Variability in Assessing Lumbar Spinal Stenosis Severity on Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Its Relation to Cross-Sectional Spinal Canal Area”, Spine 27 (2002): 1082, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ 12004176.
305 Заболевания сердца – основная причина…: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Heart Disease Facts”, accessed June 16, 2020, www.cdc.gov/heartdisease/facts.htm.
306 Исследования, проводившиеся много лет назад, выявили, что в тридцати одном случае из ста…: Timothy A. DeRouen et al., “Variability in the Analysis of Coronary Arteriograms”, Circulation 55 (1977): 324, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/832349.
307 Разброс суждений оказался значительным…: Olaf Buchweltz et al., “Interobserver Variability in the Diagnosis of Minimal and Mild Endometriosis”, European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology 122 (2005): 213, www.ejog.org/article/S0301–2115(05)00059-X/pdf.
308 значительный разброс мнений…: Jean-Pierre Zellweger et al., “Intra-observer and Overall Agreement in the Radiological Assessment of Tuberculosis”, International Journal of Tuberculosis & Lung Disease 10 (2006): 1123, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17044205. Об «удовлетворительной» степени межэкспертного согласия см. Yanina Balabanova et al., “Variability in Interpretation of Chest Radiographs Among Russian Clinicians and Implications for Screening Programmes: Observational Study”, BMJ 331 (2005): 379, www.bmj.com/content /331/7513/379.short.
309 рентгенологов разных стран…: Shinsaku Sakurada et al., “Inter-Rater Agreement in the Assessment of Abnormal Chest X-Ray Findings for Tuberculosis Between Two Asian Countries”, BMC Infectious Diseases 12, article 31 (2012), https://bmcinfectdis.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186 /1471–2334–12–31.
310 Восемь специалистов лабораторной диагностики, рассматривавшие…: Evan R. Farmer et al., “Discordance in the Histopathologic Diagnosis of Melanoma and Melanocytic Nevi Between Expert Pathologists”, Human Pathology 27 (1996): 528, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8666360.
311 Еще один эксперимент, проведенный в онкологическом центре…: Alfred W. Kopf, M. Mintzis, and R. S. Bart, “Diagnostic Accuracy in Malignant Melanoma”, Archives of Dermatology 111 (1975): 1291, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1190800.
312 Авторы исследования пришли к выводу…: Maria Miller and A. Bernard Ackerman, “How Accurate Are Dermatologists in the Diagnosis of Melanoma? Degree of Accuracy and Implications”, Archives of Dermatology 128 (1992): 559, https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamadermatology/fullarticle/554024.
313 Сходным образом варьируют и ложноположительные диагнозы…: Craig A. Beam et al., “Variability in the Interpretation of Screening Mammograms by US Radiologists”, Archives of Internal Medicine 156 (1996): 209, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ 8546556.
314 Рентгенологи порой меняют…: P. J. Robinson et al., “Variation Between Experienced Observers in the Interpretation of Accident and Emergency Radiographs”, British Journal of Radiology 72 (1999): 323, www.birpublications.org/doi/pdf/10.1259/bjr.72.856.10474490.
315 степень закупорки сосуда на коронарограмме…: Katherine M. Detre et al., “Observer Agreement in Evaluating Coronary Angiograms”, Circulation 52 (1975): 979, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1102142.
316 В тех областях, где критерии диагностики определены расплывчато…: Horton et al., “Inter- and Intra-Rater Reliability”; и Megan Banky et al., “Inter- and Intra-Rater Variability of Testing Velocity When Assessing Lower Limb Spasticity”, Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine 51 (2019), www.medicaljournals.se/jrm/content/abstract/10.2340/16501977–2496.
317 Однако другой эксперимент (в котором, правда, проблемы диагностики не фигурируют)…: Esther Y. Hsiang et al., “Association of Primary Care Clinic Appointment Time with Clinician Ordering and Patient Completion of Breast and Colorectal Cancer Screening”, JAMA Network Open 51 (2019), https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2733171.
318 вот и еще одно доказательство той роли…: Hengchen Dai et al., “The Impact of Time at Work and Time Off from Work on Rule Compliance: The Case of Hand Hygiene in Health Care”, Journal of Applied Psychology 100 (2015): 846, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25365728.
319 серьезным подспорьем…: Ali S. Raja, “The HEART Score Has Substantial Interrater Reliability”, NEJM J Watch, December 5, 2018, www.jwatch.org /na47998/2018/12/05/heart-score-has-substantial-interrater-reliability (reviewing Colin A. Gershon et al., “Inter-rater Reliability of the HEART Score”, Academic Emergency Medicine 26 [2019]: 552).
320 Мы уже говорили, что обучение…: Jean-Pierre Zellweger et al., “Intra-observer and Overall Agreement in the Radiological Assessment of Tuberculosis”, International Journal of Tuberculosis & Lung Disease 10 (2006): 1123, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17044205; Ibrahim Abubakar et al., “Diagnostic Accuracy of Digital Chest Radiography for Pulmonary Tuberculosis in a UK Urban Population”, European Respiratory Journal 35 (2010): 689, https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/35/3/689.short.
321 Той же цели служит и обобщение…: Michael L. Barnett et al., “Comparative Accuracy of Diagnosis by Collective Intelligence of Multiple Physicians vs Individual Physicians”, JAMA Network Open 2 (2019): e19009, https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetwork-open/fullarticle/2726709; Kimberly H. Allison et al., “Understanding Diagnostic Variability in Breast Pathology: Lessons Learned from an Expert Consensus Review Panel”, Histopathology 65 (2014): 240, https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/his.12387.
322 Выясняется, что лучшие из подобных программ…: Babak Ehteshami Bejnordi et al., “Diagnostic Assessment of Deep Learning Algorithms for Detection of Lymph Node Metastases in Women with Breast Cancer”, JAMA 318 (2017): 2199, https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2665774.
323 самообучающиеся алгоритмы… работают также…: Varun Gulshan et al., “Development and Validation of a Deep Learning Algorithm for Detection of Diabetic Retinopathy in Retinal Fundus Photographs”, JAMA 316 (2016): 2402, https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2588763.
324 Уже сегодня искусственный интеллект по крайней мере не хуже…: Mary Beth Massat, “A Promising Future for AI in Breast Cancer Screening”, Applied Radiology 47 (2018): 22, www.ap- pliedradiology.com/articles/a-promising-future-for-ai-in-breast-cancer-screening; Alejandro Rodriguez-Ruiz et al., “Stand-Alone Artificial Intelligence for Breast Cancer Detection in Mammography: Comparison with 101 Radiologists”, Journal of the National Cancer Institute 111 (2019): 916, https://academic.oup.com/jnci/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/jnci/djy222/5307077.
325 Таблица 3…: Apgar Score, Medline Plus, https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003402.htm (last accessed February 4, 2020).
326 шкала «Апгар» практически исключает шум…: L. R. Foster et al., “The Interrater Reliability of Apgar Scores at 1 and 5 Minutes”, Journal of Investigative Medicine 54, no. 1 (2006): 293, https://jim.bmj.com/content/54/1/S308.4.
327 Оценка и подсчет количества набранных баллов по данной шкале – действия относительно…: Warren J. McIsaac et al., “Empirical Validation of Guidelines for the Management of Pharyngitis in Children and Adults”, JAMA 291 (2004): 1587, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15069046.
328 Проводилось исследование, позволившее выяснить, что BI-RADS…: Emilie A. Ooms et al., “Mammography: Interobserver Variability in Breast Density Assessment”, Breast 16 (2007): 568, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960977607000793.
329 отмечены также в патологической анатомии…: Frances P. O’Malley et al., “Interobserver Reproducibility in the Diagnosis of Flat Epithe-lial Atypia of the Breast”, Modern Pathology 19 (2006): 172, www.nature.com/articles/3800514.
330 Именно по этой причине подавление шума…: См. Ahmed Aboraya et al., “The Reliability of Psychiatric Diagnosis Revisited”, Psychiatry (Edgmont) 3 (2006): 41, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2990547. См. также краткий обзор: N. Kreitman, “The Reliability of Psychiatric Diagnosis”, Journal of Mental Science 107 (1961): 876–886, www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-mental-science/article/reliability-of-psychiatric-diagnosis/92832FFA170F4FF41189428С6A3E6394.
331 В 1964 году проводилось исследование, в котором участвовали 91 пациент…