22. G. H. Herb Under the Map of Germany: Nationalism and Propaganda 1918–1945 (London, 1997), pp. 136–9.
23. A. Kolnai The War Against the West (London, 1938), p. 394.
24. S. Vopel ‘Radikaler, völkischer Nationalismus in Deutschland 1917–1933’, in H. Timmermann (ed.) Nationalismus und Nationalbewegung in Europa 1914–1945 (Berlin, 1999), pp. 162–75.
25. J. Stalin Works (13 volumes, Moscow, 1952–55), vol. ii, pp. 303–7, ‘Marxism and the National Question’, January 1913.
26. Stalin, Works, vol. ii, p. 321.
27. Stalin, Works, vol. ii, p. 296, ‘On the Road to Nationalism: a Letter from the Caucasus’, 12 January 1913.
28. Stalin, Works, vol. ii, pp. 322, 359, 375–7.
29. E. Koutaissoff ‘Literacy and the Place of Russian in the Non-Slav Republics of the USSR’, Soviet Studies, 3 (1951), p. 115. Stalin formulated the phrase in a speech given on 18 May 1925.
30. Stalin, Works, vol. vi, p. 153, ‘Foundations of Leninism’, April 1924.
31. Stalin, Works, vol. vi, p. 109.
32. G. Simon Nationalism and Policy Toward the Nationalities in the Soviet Union (Boulder, Colo., 1991), p. 248; Y. Slezkine ‘The USSR as a Communal Apartment, or How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism’, Slavic Review, 53 (1994), p. 437; see too P. Skalnik ‘Soviet etnografi ia and the nation(alities) question’, Cahiers du monde russe, 31 (1990), pp. 183–4.
33. Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 348; A. Hitler, The Secret Book (ed. T. Taylor, New York, 1961), pp. 6, 29, 44; Stalin’s remark in Slezkine, The USSR as Communal Apartment’, p. 445.
34. Hitler, Mein Kampf, pp. 299, 339–40.
35. Hitler, Secret Book, p. 29.
36. Hitler, Mein Kampf, pp. 271–7; Hitler, Secret Book, pp. 212–13.
37. W. Maser (ed.) Hitler’s Letters and Notes (New York, 1974), p. 221; Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 273.
38. Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 355.
39. H. C. D’Encausse The Great Challenge: Nationalities and the Bolshevik State 1917–1930 (New York, 1992), pp. 135–7, 217; Simon, Nationalism and Policy, pp. 23–4.
40. F. Hirsch The Soviet Union as a Work-in-Progress: Ethnographers and the Category Nationality in the 1926, 1937 and 1939 Censuses’, Slavic Review, 56 (1997), pp. 251–64.
41. S. Crisp ‘Soviet Language Planning 1917–1953’, in M. Kirkwood Language Planning in the Soviet Union (London, 1989), pp. 26–7.
42. Simon, Nationalism and Policy, p. 50.
43. Koutaissoff, ‘Literacy and the Place of Russian’, pp. 120–21.
44. S. L. Guthier The Belorussians: National Identifi cation and Assimilation 1897–1970: Part T, Soviet Studies, 29 (1977), p. 55.
45. Stalin, Works, vol. ii, p. 376.
46. J. Smith The Education of National Minorities: the Early Soviet Experience’, Slavonic and East European Review, 75 (1997), p. 302; Y. Bilinsky ‘Education and the Non-Russian Peoples in the USSR, 1917–1967: an Essay’, Slavic Review, 27 (1968), pp. 419–20.
47. Simon, Nationalism and Policy, p. 240; Crisp, ‘Soviet Language Planning’, p. 38; I. Baldauf ‘Some Thoughts on the Making of the Uzbek Nation’, Cahiers du monde russe, 32 (1991), pp. 86–9.
48. G. O. Liber Soviet Nationality Policy, Urban Growth, and Identity Change in the Ukrainian SSR 1923–1935 (Cambridge, 1992), p. 187.
49. Liber, Soviet Nationality Policy, appendix 14.
50. Martin, ‘Soviet Ethnic Cleansing’, pp. 842–4.
51. Simon, ‘Nationsbildung und “Revolution von oben”’, pp. 233–4, 247–9.
52. Hirsch, The Soviet Union as a Work-in-Progress’, pp. 271–4.
53. Royal Institute of International Affairs Nationalism (London, 1939), p. 78.
54. Crisp, ‘Soviet Language Planning’, pp. 28–9; Bilinsky, ‘Education and the Non-Russian Peoples’, p. 428; Koutaissoff, ‘Literacy and the Place of Russian’, p. 114; Simon, Nationalism and Policy, pp. 150–51.
55. Details in Simon, Nationalism and Policy, pp. 142–5.
56. Simon, Nationalism and Policy, pp. 144–5, 148.
57. Royal Institute of International Affairs, Nationalism, p. 74; S. G. Simonsen ‘Raising “The Russian Question”: Ethnicity and Statehood – Russkie and Rossiya’, Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, 2 (1996), pp. 96–110. See too N. Lynn and V. Bogorov ‘Reimaging the Russian Idea’, in G. Herb and D. Kaplan (eds) Nested Identities: Nationalism, Territory and Scale (Lanham, Md, 1999)-> pp. 101–7; R. Szporluk ‘Nationalism and Communism: refl ections: Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and Poland’, Nations and Nationalism, 4 (1998), pp. 308–11.
58. Royal Institute of International Affairs, Nationalism, p. 79.
59. A. Powell ‘The Nationalist Trend in Soviet Historiography’, Soviet Studies, 2 (1950/1), pp. 373–5; D. Brandenberger National Bolshevism: Stalinist Mass Culture and the formation of Modern Russian National Identity 1931–1956 (Cambridge, Mass., 2002), pp. 71–6, 86–94.
60. M. Perrie ‘Nationalism and History: the Cult of Ivan the Terrible in Stalin’s Russia’, in Hosking and Service (eds), Russian Nationalism, pp. 107–13; K. E. Platt and D. Brandenberger Terribly Romantic, Terribly Progressive, or Terribly Tragic: Rehabilitating Ivan IV under I. V. Stalin’, Russian Review, 58 (1999), pp. 637–8.
61. R. Bergan Sergei Eisenstein: a Life in Confl ict (New York, 1997), pp. 296–306; see too D. Brandenberger ‘Soviet social mentalite and Russo-centrism on the eve of war’, Jahrbuch für die Geschichte Osteruropas, 44 (1996), pp. 388, 392–4.
62. R. Stites Russian Popular Culture: Entertainment and Society since 1900 (Cambridge, 1992) p. 57.
63. Royal Institute of International Affairs, Nationalism, p. 79; see too Lynn and Bogorov, ‘Reimaging the Russian Idea’, pp. 107–8.
64. Martin, ‘Soviet Ethnic Cleansing’, pp. 830–31, 837, 845–9.
65. N. Bugai The Deportation of Peoples in the Soviet Union (New York, 1996), pp. 28–31; Simon, Nationalism and Policy, pp. 199–200; Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing, pp. 9–19.
66. Martin, ‘Soviet Ethnic Cleansing’, pp. 853–7.
67. P. J. Duncan ‘Ukrainians’, in G. Smith (ed.) The Nationalities Question in the Soviet Union (London, 1990), pp. 96–7.
68. Simon, Nationalism and Policy, pp. 162–3.
69. W. Taubman Khrushchev: the Man and his Era (New York, 2002), p. 99.
70. Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing, pp. 1–3.
71. On Esperanto speakers see K. Sword (ed.) The Soviet Takeover of the Polish Eastern Provinces, 1939–1941 (London, 1991), appendix 3c ‘NKVD Instructions Relating to “Anti-Soviet Elements”’.
72. K. Sword Deportation and Exile: Poles in the Soviet Union, 1939–48 (London, 1994), pp. 25–7; J. Gross Revolution from
Abroad: the Soviet Conquest of Poland’s Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia (Princeton, NJ, 1988), pp. 193–4.
73. Tolz, ‘Deportations of Ethnic Groups’, p. 162.
74. Sword, Deportation and Exile, p. 22.
75. Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing, p. 5; Tolz, ‘Deportation of Ethnic Groups’, pp. 161–7; Bougai, Deportation of Peoples, passim.
76. Tolz, ‘Deportation of Ethnic Groups’, p. 164.
77. Tolz, ‘Deportation of Ethnic Groups’, p. 166.
78. N. Levin Paradox of Survival: the Jews in the Soviet Union since 1917 (2 vols, London, 1990), vol. i, pp. 477–9, 484.
79. Stalin, Works, vol. ii, pp. 307–8, 345, 359; J. Miller ‘Soviet Theory on the Jews’, in L. Kochan (ed.) The Jews in Soviet Russia since 1917 (Oxford, 1978), pp. 49–52.
80. J. B. Schechtman ‘The USSR, Zionism and Israel’, in Kochan, Jews in Soviet Russia, pp. 106–8.
81. Z. Gitelman ‘Soviet Jewry before the Holocaust’, in Z. Gitelman (ed.) Bitter Legacy: Confronting the Holocaust in the USSR (Bloomington, Ind., 1997), p. 5; B. Pinkus ‘La participation des minorities nationals extraterritoriales à la vie politique et publique de l’Union Soviétique, 1917–1939’, Cahiers du monde russe, 36 (1995) pp. 299–300.
82. Schechtman, ‘The USSR, Zionism and Israel’, p. 118.
83. Gitelman, ‘Soviet Jewry’, p. 6; Smith, ‘Education of National Minorities’, p. 30; see too S. W. Baron The Russian Jew under Tsars and Soviets (2nd edn, New York, 1987), pp. 226–34.
84. M. Altshuler Soviet Jewry on the Eve of the Holocaust (Jerusalem, 1998), pp. 30, 146; Levin, Paradox of Survival, pp. 134–
43, 233; E. Lohr ‘The Russian Army and the Jews: Mass Deportations, Hostages, and Violence during World War P, Russian
Review, 60 (2001), p. 408 on the Pale.
85. Altshuler, Soviet Jewry, p. 146.
86. Levin, Paradox of Survival, pp. 275–6.
87. Altshuler, Soviet Jewry, p. 26.
88. C. Abramsky ‘The Biro-Bidzhan Project, 1927–1959’, in Kochan, Jews in Soviet Russia, pp. 70–71, 73–7.
89. B.-C. Pinchuk Shtetl Jews under Soviet Rule: Eastern Poland on the Eve of the Holocaust (London, 1990), pp. 55, 129–31.
90. Pinchuk, Shtetl Jews, p. 39.
91. Schechtman, ‘The USSR, Zionism and Israel’, p. 124.
92. S. Sebag Montefi ore Stalin: the Court of the Red Tsar (London, 2003), pp. 509–10; A. Vaksberg Stalin against the Jews (New York, 1994), pp. 159–81; Levin, Paradox of Survival, pp. 393–4.
93. For details see B. Pinkus The Jews of the Soviet Union: the History of a National Minority (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 142–50, 174–7; Y. Rapaport The Doctors’ Plot: Stalin’s Last Crime (London, 1991); J. Brent and V. Naumov Stalin’s Last Crime: the Plot against the Jewish Doctors, 1948–1953 (London, 2002).
94. A. Blakely Russia and the Negro (Washington DC, 1986), p. 101.
95. Hirsch, ‘Race without Racial Polities’, pp. 32–5; A. Weiner ‘Nothing but Certainty’, Slavic Review, 61 (2002), pp. 44–51. See for a different view E. D. Weitz ‘Racial Politics without the Concept of Race: Reevaluating Soviet Ethnic and National Purges’, Slavic Review, 61 (2002), pp. 1–29.
96. Hirsch, ‘Race without Racial Polities’, p. 36.
97. Akten zur deutschen auswärtigen Politik, Ser. D, vol. I (Baden-Baden, 1950), p. 25, ‘Niederschrift über die Besprechung in der Reichskanzlei’, 5 November 1937.
98. S. Lauryssens The Man who Invented the Third Reich (Stroud, 1999), pp. 140, 146, 151.